Athenian democracy and The roman empire

The city-state of Athens was prosperous until, in 508 B.C., it became a democracy.   With the change to democratic rule, the majority of the people had all the decision-making power, with the minority being left with no influence whatsoever.As a result, the majority became a ruling oligarchy whose disastrous decisions brought about Athens’ end.   Athens was forced into a series of wars, including that with Persia, and the Peloponnesian Wars.The oligarchy having made too many poor decisions, class warfare made its way onto the scene.   The poor fought to steal the wealth from the rich.   Division due to class warfare, and the overall lack of support and confidence in the ruling government, made it easy for Alexander the Great to defeat Athens in 338 B.C., thereby ending their democracy. 1â€Å"Rome established a republic in 509 B.C.† 1   Under this new system, the Senators were elected by popular vote.   However, limits were placed on their power, as a sort o f check-and-balance system.   This was a safeguard that left the people free, and under this freedom they prospered.Factors which contributed to the expansion of the Roman Empire included superior methods of warfare, superior building and architectural capabilities that linked the empire, and money enough to support and maintain a large army to conquer, and then defend, the newly gained territories. 2 The land was the means by which the money was earned for the empire.Though the Romans did not have the advantage of superior weaponry, or anything different from their enemies for that matter, they were capable of beating armies much larger than themselves.   As the empire expanded, roads and aqueducts were constructed that allowed the empire to be united despite the large territory.   In fact, some of these original roadways are still in use today. 2As the Roman Empire continued to expand through additional conquered lands, they were able to maintain the stronghold by having ade quate military on the boundaries of the empire, thus holding back the Barbarians who sought to encroach upon   the empire.   The Germans were always looking for a â€Å"way in.†Ã‚  Another factor that contributed to the success of the Roman Empire were the â€Å"ideas of justice† they initiated.   These ideas of justice had already been formed into basic laws, which governed the entire empire, by 451 B.C.   These laws lay â€Å"down what one could and could not do.† 2   These self-same laws were written on 12 plates of bronze.   Today they are known as the Twelve Tables, and are the â€Å"first examples of written law.†The demise of the Roman Empire was greatly impacted by the greed, excessive spending, and over-taxation of the people by some of the latter emperors.   By the time that Commodus was assassinated, the imperial coffers were empty.   Other emperors, such as Caligula, wasted vast amounts of money on parties for the wealthy where food and drink was consumed to the point of vomiting.

Cultural Immersion Essay

Culture has been characterized as the beliefs, arts, morals, customs and traditions exhibited by a group of individuals within a particular society (Langness 1987). It has long been believed that culture has been associated with one’s ancestry. My trip to Jamaica has made it evident that this entirely is not the case. There are a number of other factors that could cause two groups of individual from the same ethnical background but living in different societies. My paper will be discussing my experiences and realization during my short but meaningful trip to the island of Jamaica. My Cultural Background In order to show that people who come from the same ethnical background do not necessarily have to have the same culture, I will first provide information regarding my own personal background to serve as the basis. Although I am an American living in California, my ethnical descent is African. The roots of my family are embedded in Mississippi. It is for this reason why the food and way of life I have been brought up with resembles those that live in the southern part of the country. In fact, even if I do come from a single parent household, our traditions are very much Southern from the food we eat, the importance we give to our religion and spending time with the family. Day One of My Trip This trip was not just my first time to Jamaica, but my first trip outside of the United States. The moment I had gotten out of the plane, I could say that I was immediately shocked with what greeted me. When I left California for Jamaica, I went through an airport that was air-conditioned and my full of the latest security precaution devices and machines to pass through. I did not see anything of this sort when I arrived in the airport at Jamaica. No high-technology security equipment and no air-conditioner running in the airport. I was greeted by a man named Darwin Mills who was going to drive me to the house of Mr. and Mrs. James, my host family. Mr. Mill’s disposition was as warm as the weather. He was more than happy to drive me first around the Montego Bay area of the island to show me around. Although he was extremely enthusiastic about everything in Jamaica, I could not help but notice how different it was from my hometown in California. It was if I was in another world. For starters, the vehicle used by Mr. Mills to bring me to my destination was right-handed, which was why they were driving in the opposite lane than I would back in California. I also saw people walking on either side of what was supposedly their main highway. When I meant that they were walking on either side of the highway, I am not talking about them walking on sidewalks on either side of the highway. They were literally walking on the side of the highway. What really caught my attention was how underdeveloped the area was. It was not anything like what you would see in tourist brochures and magazines. The streets were filled with pot holes. Houses were small and the fences were poorly made. There were no skyscrapers or large business establishments back home. It made me realize just how fortunate I was living in a sturdy well-built house with a sturdy fence and driving on a well-paved road, despite the horrendous traffic. My first taste of authentic Jamaican cuisine was at lunch time when Mr. Mills brought me to the Rock House Hotel. I was blown away on just how fresh the food was. It tasted deliciously different. After which, I was taken to Rick’s Cafe, which is known more for the daredevils jumping over the cliffs into the wide blue ocean. At the background was a steel drum band playing Reggae music, which is one of the signatures of Jamaica. I was fascinated on how something so simple could be able to develop wonderful, upbeat music. When Mr. Mills dropped me at Mr. and Mrs. James’ house, I nearly jumped at the sight of the dogs that Mr. James keeps loose at the front yard. He apologized for them and explained to me that their dogs were allowed to run loose for their own protection. Although their homes were equipped with two air-conditioners, he explained to me that this is rarely used since electricity is rather expensive in Jamaica. This is the reason why they only use electric fans. As I retired for the night, I kept reminding myself not to immediately judge my life back in California and what I have initially seen in Jamaica so that I would be able to fully understand more about living in Jamaica. Day Two of My Trip The highlight of the second day of my trip was when Mr. and Mrs. James introduced me to Mr. James’ uncle, Charles and his cousin, Brenda. It was through my conversation with them that I begun to slowly learn more about Jamaica. According to them, for a long time, Jamaica had been a colony of England. It only gained its independence in 1962. Majority of the inhabitants of the island were predominantly of African descent, like I was. Although they live far away from Africa, they still hold dearly to their African traditions and customs. Celebrations of the various African festivals are held annually. Despite its booming tourism industry, Jamaica remains to be a third world country. This conversation had answered a lot of my questions when I had first arrived in Jamaica and it had opened my eyes and my mind and developed an understanding and appreciation to the people living in Jamaica. Despite everything surrounding them, they remain to be warm and extremely accommodating to me and more than willing to help me learn as much as I can about Jamaica and Jamaican’s way of life. Day Three of My Trip My last day in Jamaica happened to land on a Sunday. The day started with a day at the beachside which Jamaica has long been known for. But I did not go there to swim, because I do not know how. Instead, I had been taken by Mr. James to the beach to do some shopping. Unlike in California where everything is bought in the local grocery or seafood market, here in Jamaica, it only takes a matter of a few hours for the food to be caught, picked, cleaned, cooked and served. Speaking with meals, my last meal in Jamaica was something similar that one that I would usually have back home. We were served a feast of greens, jerk chicken, rice and peas. Just like back home, Sunday was a time when families get together and enjoy each others’ company over a wonderful spread of home-cooked favorites. Reflection Taking the road less traveled by American tourists in Jamaica, I was able to learn so much about their way of life. Back home, I have been fortunate to have access to a number of amenities and privileges that most Jamaicans would only dream about. Yet, their situation has not diminished their warm and sunny outlook towards life. Despite their limited resources, Jamaicans are able to make the most of what they have and keep a positive outlook. For instance, some African Americans to this day hold a grudge against Caucasian Americans for the prejudice, racism and oppression the older generations have experienced since the time of the slave trade. While Jamaicans had also experienced the same oppressive treatment in the hands of the English, they have placed the oppression behind them and instead celebrate on the fact that they are now free from the oppression. Reference Langness, L. L. (1987). The Study of Culture. Novato, CA: Chandler & Sharp.

Does Science Tells Us the truth Essay

In the American heritage Dictionary of the English Language, science has been defined as â€Å"the observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of natural phenomenon† (Gottlieb, 1997). But can these explanations be equated to truth? Through out history, science has explained myriad occurrences in the universe. However, until today, many still questions the validity of scientific knowledge in relation to its truthfulness and the veracity of its claimed truthfulness. According to Gottlied (1997), science is â€Å"an intellectual activity†¦designed to discover information†. This information is then organized and used to create a meaningful pattern that can explain natural phenomenon (Gotltieb, 1997). It is also said that the main purpose of science is to collect facts that discern the â€Å"order that exists between and amongst the various facts† (Gottliedb, 1997). The ability of science to discern and collect facts to give meaningful explanation of the causes and effects of natural phenomena becomes a way of discovering the truth. Without science there would be no discipline to work on these explanations and the truth will be left undiscovered and mankind will be left in the dark wondering about things. Does science tells us the truth? Or is it concern with the pursuit of truth? According to Esting (1998), â€Å"scientists must understand that it is moral cowardice to dissociate the practice of science from the pursuit of truth†. This only means that scientist should use science in order to discover the truth and inform the people of what lies behind every scientifically explainable phenomenon. In addition, Esting (1998) also mentioned that the mere fact that science is but a mere creation of men, does not change the purpose of science, which is the pursuit of truth. For example, according to the article, ‘What Is’, versus ‘What Should Be’ (n. d. ), it is mentioned that science is more concerned in explaining the ‘what is’ truth of things, thought it cannot provide the facts of the ‘what should’ truth of things. Moreover, the article also stated that â€Å"science knows the truth of nature, but only on the material side and incorporates technology to explain how to achieve and prove this fact. In order to explain this claim, take the case of pure science principle of the freezing point of water. Science tells us that water freezes when temperature drops to zero degrees Celsius. In this regard, technology then suggests and explains the various ways on how to drop the temperature to zero (‘What Is’ versus ‘What Should be’, n. d. ). Meanwhile, to answer the question, Cross (200) mentioned that the best way to determine whether or not science tell us the truth is to understand how scientists think and how they arrive at their conclusions. According to him, the existence of science is for the discovery and understanding of human nature apart from the fact of existence of men. In order to understand the laws of nature, we gather facts and formulate theories to explain every phenomenon. These theories try to explain why things happen, why things did not happen and why natural results are unavoidable. The results of these queries by the scientists are then published and made known to the public for whom the information of the conclusion is intended for. Once these conclusions are released, they became open to scrutiny and other scientists try to prove wrong these findings by conducting their own experiments and data gathering; or by modifying these conclusions based on their own findings (Cross, 2000). When scientific findings and conclusiosn remain unchallenged, they become the working guidelines for human actions, which then become ‘facts of life’ and the ‘truth’. Because many people trust how science works, science has become their only way to tell the truth and at least explain the truth about things (Cross, 2000). As it is provided by Cross (2000), science â€Å"has been hugely successful in giving us explanations of the world around us†. However the explanation as to whether or not science does tells us the truth, lies on the determination of what the truth is or what the truth is all about. According to Bradley (2004), even Einstein, one of the greatest scientists of all time, who showed and discovered the ‘truth’ about things, â€Å"showed that everything is relative† (Bradley, 2004) and â€Å"that truth itself is relative† (Bradley, 2004). The relativity of what the truth is also results to the relativity of the findings and conclusions of science in relation to the truth and how people perceive what the truth is. Finally, science is never an infallible aspect of human existence. There are times that science cannot also explain certain phenomenon, not at the present at least. But, this should not be seen as to mean that science does not tell the truth but rather, its own limitations and the vagueness of life itself, hides the truth from even among the greatest scientists of our time. If men would live in doubt of the truth offered by science and scientific knowledge; then â€Å"all science becomes futile; the search for objective knowledge becomes futile; and no scientific knowledge gathered to date can be true†(Gottlieb, 1997).

COMS 445 Portfolio Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

COMS 445 Portfolio Paper - Essay Example The theme song and opening sequence set the sequel of the show. Why was the show viewed negatively? In this paper I will recommend that The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, the African American sitcom broadcast in the 1990s, might be recognized a vehicle through which the accepted representation of dark characters in the last part of the twentieth century has been undermined, addressing the old stereotypes about African Americans, consistent with which a character must be poor, ghettoized or a criminal. One of the points of this paper is to highlight and to analyze why the show was seen contrarily in connection to the everlasting social crash between blacks and whites and, most importantly, as Brooks and Marsh uphold, "the troubles confronted by blacks in a white social order" (Brooks & Mash, p368). Moreover, having investigated the first season of the arrangement, I will offer a few perceptions identified with the part of the primary character, featured by the performer Will Smith, and his connection with alternate parts of the family, highlighting that the hero's assignment to think about his relatives' societal position and conduct as absence of Blackness is a methodology that permits the other dark characters to subvert the universal picture of African Americans offered by American broad communications everywhere throughout the planet. The point of this approach could be recognized an approach to decipher the new dark socio-social environment of the most recent decades of the previous century in the USA, permitting viewers of the nations where the sitcom was publicized to meet and comprehend key parts of the American dark group of that period (Brooks & Mash, p367). Judging by a confounding African American circumstance parody by Means Coleman for its unique approach to delineate additionally undermine conventional pictures of dark stereotypes, The Fresh sovereign of Bel-Air is frequently looked into (Coleman, p144). It is conceivable to look after that all around t he entire first season, that incorporates 24 scenes, two propensities are unmistakable: the first is undoubtedly the representation of the everlasting crash between the primary character of the story and his relatives, addressing the accepted part of dark characters in the handling on TV in the twentieth century, and the second one is identified with the challenges of living in a white rich neighborhood being part of the Black group. These two focal issues are addressed and confronted through two coordinating techniques. The clearer of the two is portrayed by the incessant verbal battles between the principle characters, and the other one uses amusing and evidently say-nothing circumstances to highlight the issues this rich dark family needs to face as a result of a white-focused social order (Coleman, p168). How does Zook re-interpret the show? How does Zook re-translate the Fresh Prince of Bel-Air? According to zook, when Fox's urban system was started in 1986, the system tight th rew or focused on a particular back viewership and counter-customizing against different shows to suite that group of onlookers' taste (Zook, p90). As per Zook, a normal for dark Tv is socially particular feel. While rap music and graffiti-like representation were regular on white shows of this period also, Afrocentric Clothing, haircuts, and antiquities performed particular capacities in dark shows, for example the new ruler of bel-air with continuous references to Malcom X,

Systems Analysis and Design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Systems Analysis and Design - Essay Example e key benefits of MS Project lies in its complimentary nature with other Office package software as well as the user-controlled scheduling feature that increases the usability of Projects as a project management tool. The software also has an Excel-like interface that is user friendly and fluent that enhances its usability and at the same time creates a sense of familiarity to newer users. Its timeline view enhances the aesthetics value that helps users be able to analyze problems and possibilities at a glance (Shelly & Rosenblatt 113). Group meetings may be considered as an effective way of collecting data. Among the benefits of group meetings as a data collection method incudes a better collaborative option, reduced bias, newer perspectives and enhanced communication since proposed ideas and information are subject to critique from all the members present, ensuring that quality is prioritized. Furthermore, group meetings are a time-efficient means of gathering data since several subjects are questioned simultaneously. However, group meetings may not necessarily be time conscious especially where social challenges and a lack of privacy delay the data collection process due to arguments and a reluctance of members to divulge information. In essence, the use of group meetings may depend on various factors such as the setting, sensitivity of the subject matter and expected outcomes of the data collection process (Shelly & Rosenblatt

Religion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Religion - Essay Example Humans have, Acharya submits, formed their own beliefs (called probability belief in mathematics and science) about the set of unknowable elements of the universe. Â  They have branded their beliefs about the unknowable as religion. (2006: 2) Though religious beliefs differ from society to society as well as from one community to another, yet no human culture can be viewed as a society without religion. There exist countless religions in the world, but main faiths among them include three Abrahamic religions (i.e. Judaism, Christianity and Islam), Buddhism, Jainism, Confucianism, Hinduism and others. The present paper aims to focus its research on Judaism, Islam and Confucianism for the comparative study, so that their scholarly views could be drawn out in order to assess and estimate the commonalities and differences. The researcher personally interviewed one religious leader and two common men from the Jewish synagogues, Islamic mosques and Buddhist temples situated in Philadelphia, so that the true picture of the religions under study could be observed. The study has been focused on the status of racial discrimination and homosexuality in the three religious beliefs under study. i. Broad Vision: The term broad vision refers to the ideas, notions and views which are free from racial, ethnic, regional, religious and status prejudice or hatred. In the present study, the term simply means the opinions of the religious people which are free of narrow sightedness. ii. Religious Faiths: The term religious faiths simply refer to the sets of spiritual beliefs that describe the duties and obligations of the individuals towards their worshipper as well as spiritual mentor. iii. Dogmatists and Clergy: Dogmatist and clergy refer to the religious people who maintain solid and determined opinion about religious, social, political and cultural phenomena prevailing around them. The clergy are usually

Compare the education between Saudi Arabia and United state Essay

Compare the education between Saudi Arabia and United state - Essay Example Saudi Arabia and the United States are allies. However, while learners in the United States continue to access valuable education and subsequent employment, learners in Saudi Arabia continue to undergo substandard education. Saudi Arabia needs to be at the same level of education as the United States, if the two countries are to gain meaningful cooperation. A lot of scholars have written on the current trends in education in Saudi Arabia and what future holds. Such literature acknowledges that most of the elite in Saudi Arabia have schooled in the United States and provideslessons that Saudi Arabia can learn from the United States (Lippman, 2012). In order for Saudi Arabia to compete globally with nations such as the United States, theformer needs to borrow from the educational system of the latter. It would be very beneficial for Saudi Arabia to emulate the United States in terms of learner-centered instructional methods, more investment in libraries, more emphasis on higher education, and the use of online

3107 Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

3107 - Term Paper Example Good infrastructure is between nations have also encouraged international trade. The infrastructures such as those that enhance transport and communication have been regarded as the core determinants of a country development and therefore different nations have invested in them to encourage investors. The forces of demand and supply are the main drive for the international trade. Countries do have special products and services that they do produce in bulkiness and at low cost (Lecture notes chapter 1). These qualities gives the country the power to have a market share in the world market where the sell their commodities. The benefit accrued from the global trade is that the country can get access of the surplus produce and can fill in the deficit of commodities that is unable to produce at a cheaper cost. Development of the information and communication technology across the globe is also a boost to the international trade as people from different regions of the world can do business regardless of the geographical distances. The increase in trade between two or more countries has also been affected by the international production. Countries have been moving their units of production to countries other countries as seen by the U.S.A firms shifting to China. The reasons for international production are mainly for cost reduction. Firms may move their industries to other countries where the main raw materials are readily available. Setting an industries in the base where raw materials are readily available helps the industry to cut the cost of production by cutting out the cost related to the transportation of the raw materials to the production site. Industries are also shifting to countries where the labor cost is cheap. Most of the international firms from the west are setting up industries in the third world countries where the labor cost is cheap. Cheap labor leads to low production cost and therefore the investors finds advantage of setting up firms in

Realistic nursing care plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Realistic nursing care plan - Essay Example He is peripherally cyanosed and very anxious. To be able to provide a realistic nursing care plan on the above-mentioned case, it is first necessary to add a little more information that may help us focus on the type of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) that Mr. Percy Jones might be suffering. Before moving on, it is imperative at this point to define what CODP is. CODP is generally defined by the Manual of Nursing Practice (2001, p. 294) as "a term that refers to a group of conditions characterized by continued increased resistance to expiratory airflow." Marieb (2002, p. 403) further gives us features that are common among CODP patients, and these are as follows: patients almost always have a history of smoking; dyspnea occurs and becomes progressively more severe; coughing and frequent pulmonary infections are common; and most CODP victims are hypoxic, retain carbon dioxide and have respiratory acidosis, and ultimately develop respiratory failure. Generally, CODP may either be chronic bronchitis or emphysema. Chronic bronchitis is characterized by severe inflammation of the mucosa of the lower respiratory passages, coupled with the excessive production of mucus (Marieb, 2002, p. 403) which results in the presence of "cough and sputum production for at least a combined total of three months in each of two consecutive years" (Smeltzer and Bar e 2004, p. 569). Emphysema, on the other hand, is a disease that "affects the airways characterized by the destruction of the walls of overdistended alveoli" (Smeltzer and Bare 2004, p. 569). We shall elaborate on emphysema in a short while. The case clearly alludes to a type of CODP that stems directly from too much exposure to mining dusts. Though most CODP cases are due to cigarette smoking or passing smoking, Mr. Jones' illness differs from the majority as to the main cause and probable coincidence of the different types of CODP. Though complications and the occurrence of two types of CODP is a possibility, allow me to narrow down Mr. Jones' CODP type based on the facts that are given. According to a study by Cogon and Taylor (1998, p. 406), miners, due to dust exposure, are prone to centrilobular emphysema, especially in the presence of pneumoconiosis. Emphysema, as must be recalled, is a progressive COPD condition where the walls of the alveoli are destroyed due to recurrent infection. Such results in the enlargement of dead space in the lungs which leads to hypoxemia, and in worse cases, hypercapnia (which, in turn, may lead to other complications) (Smeltzer and Bare, 2004, p. 570). Emphysema, in turn, may either be panlobular or centrilobular. Again, both types of emphysema may exist in one patient, the main difference between the two are as follows: panlobular emphysema, there is the destruction of the bronchiole, alveolar duct, and alveoli such that all air spaces within the lobule are essentially enlarged, but there is little inflammatory disease (Smeltzer and Bare 2004, p. 570); in centrilobular emphysema, what is affected are the proximal aspects of the lu ng acinus, primarily the area of the respiratory bronchioles (RadioWiki 2005), though, alveolar ducts in the proximal and middle portion of the pulmonary module may be destroyed in gross cases, resulting in holes or emphysematous spaces (Daroca

Non Conformity and Society Essay Example for Free

Non Conformity and Society Essay Even though an overwhelming number of people believe that law and its implementation is the decisive factor that determines the success of a society. But is this generalization justified? Tim Li explores whether this idea is reality or just another myth. A society is based on a system of rules and regulations which all individuals are expected to abide by. Conformity, in general, means to go in accordance with those rules that govern our society. For instance, a group is going for camping; now that group cannot function if each of their individual members do not display a reasonable extent of conformity. This e.g. implies that even though the literal meaning of conformity remains the same, the way the people embrace it changes. To a large extent on conformity is needed for the success and improvement of a society. In the following article, I will explain conformity by discussing about Copernicus, Euthanasia and the growth of science. About 600 years ago, the church was considered law. No one could defy its teachings and whosoever did so was publicly beheaded. One of the theories of the church was that the earth was the center of the universe and that other planets revolved around it. Copernicus was a genius who had a great interest in astronomy. It was he who stated that the sin was the hub around which all other planets revolved. In this case Copernicus was a non conformist i.e. he believed in something that was against the religious teachings/implications of the church, but his being non conformist was the sole cause of the development of a theory that bought about a great change in the scientific perspective of astronomy. At present a very serious issue has jumped into the consideration and thinking of the society. The government is pondering on whether to accept the growing numbers of Euthanasia or to deny them. Euthanasia is when people suffering from long term chronic .are non conformist i.e. who dont want to live are benefited more than other people suffering from the same types of diseases. Here conformity does not help, or in other words, it is better to be a non conformist. Science too, plays a decisive role on our changing society. It surrounds us completely, from a common light bulb to aero planes and space travel. In short, a society cannot function without science. A critical analysis of science suggests that new discoveries in science break laws on which our older societies and generations are built on. E.g. Until the 1900s everyone believed that man cannot fly, but now science has broken that barrier, it is therefore a non conformist in relation to that law which was dominant at that time. Revolutionary research into stem cells has prompted a heated ethical debate between the church and the scientific faction. So, if this situation is examined, the church has always seen science as a hard core criminal but that form of science is needed for the mere existence of a society. All these arguments reinforce the original statement that some degree of non conformity is needed for a successful society. Although too much conformity means the elimination of all crimes, it also implies the abrupt stop in scientific technology and I cant live in Stone age, can you?

Procurement Analysis Implementation

Procurement Analysis Implementation The development of procurement strategy follows the stages in the life of a project. Initially, a preliminary strategy is determined. It is based on a broad definition of objectives and is an essential step in establishing the way forward for the project. It encourages the client to consider strategy early. The preliminary procurement strategy is usually developed with help from the clients adviser and possibly other consultants. Procurement strategy development has three components: †¢ analysis assessing and setting the priorities of the project objectives and requirements; †¢ choice considering possible options, evaluating them and selecting the most appropriate; and †¢ implementation putting the chosen strategy into effect. During strategy preparation, it may be necessary to seek specialist advice from other consultants, for example, in relation to expected costs for the project. The adviser should advise the client on this. Specialist advice should besought when developing the strategy for novel or especially difficult projects. Until construction contracts are let, the client, with help from his adviser, must systematically ensure that the strategy is on course to meet the projects established objectives. This is important because objectives sometimes change. Procurement Methods There are various methods of procurement which can be broadly classified under the following headings: Traditional Design and Build Two Stage Tendering Public Private Partnerships / Private Finance Initiative Management Contracting Construction Management Framework Agreements Each method has different aspects of risk transfer and no one method can be classed as best overall. Traditional Procurement In this method the Contractor builds to a defined scope of works for a fixed price lump sum. The client retains the responsibility for the design and the project team. The contractor will be appointed normally following a tender process or negotiation and will sign up to a contract for the works. There are a number of standard forms of building contract available for this purpose. Design and Build Procurement The Client appoints a building contractor, as before standard forms of contract are available for this purpose to provide a completed building to an agreed cost and programme. The Contractor is responsible for design and construction. The Contractor can be chosen through a tender process or through negotiation. The Client can appoint a consultant to oversee the works. Maximum risk is transferred following this method of procurement, although a commercial response to design in order to address contract conditions can result. An alternative is to appoint a contractor when designs have been developed in order to retain control of the important elements of design and specification. The Design Team can then transfer their contractual obligations to the contractor and complete the designs on behalf of the Contractor. This process is called Novation. Two Stage Tender Procurement In this process, the Contractor is appointed on the basis of a first stage tender which determines the level of overhead and profit for each Contractor. The Contractor then works with the Project Team during the second stage to develop the designs and establish detailed costings for separate project work elements. This process will provide for a fixed price on a detailed design basis. The provider can then enter into a contract on this fixed price basis and also pursue the opportunity to novate the Design Team as with the Design and Build Procurement route as previously noted. This process requires a long second stage period in which to design and tender the different work elements and therefore a start on site would occur later than normal. Public Private Partnerships Public Private Partnerships (PPP), particularly Private Finance Initiatives (PFI) projects are created for the provision of services and not specifically for the exclusive provision of capital assets such as buildings. It is therefore preferable to investigate PPPs as soon as possible after a user need has been identified rather than leaving it until a conventional construction project has been selected as the solution. It should be noted that the tendering process in this procurement route is expensive and requires negotiation rather than competitive tendering. In comparison with other procurement routes the time from commencement of the project to attaining a start on site is substantially longer. Management Contracting This is a fast track strategy which overlaps the design and construction stages and allows early elements of the construction process to be commenced before design has been completed. The Management Contractor is engaged to manage the overall contract in return for a fee. The Management Contractor can therefore be appointed early in the design and can advise on buildability and programming. In addition to the contract with the Management Contractor, the contracts for the individual work packages are between the Management Contractor and the individual sub-contractors. A cost plan is utilised to control the development costs although actual costs cannot be obtained until the final work package has been awarded. Construction Management This is also a fast track strategy where individual elements of the project are let before the design of later work packages or elements have been completed. The provider will appoint a Construction Manager to manage the overall contract in return for a management fee as with Management Contracting. Also, as before, the project can benefit from early involvement of the Contractor. In this process the contracts for the sub-contractors are placed directly between the Client and the sub-contractor and the Client will need to have a high level of involvement during the design development and the construction phases of the work. As with Management Contracting, the final costs will only be known once the final work elements have been awarded. Framework Agreements Framework Agreements can be established with single suppliers or with a limited number of suppliers. Frameworks can allow suppliers to be brought together with the relevant expertise and experience which can result in savings to both parties where a number of projects are involved. These agreements can cover different forms of procurement including Design and Build, Traditional, etc. The LSC are currently developing framework agreements for consultancy services accross the country. These should be available for use by colleges by early 2008. Following on from this, the LSC will also be working on developing a contractors framework. London Heathrow Airport (LHA/EGLL) Terminal 5, United Kingdom Terminal 5 is one of Europes largest and most complex construction projects. With 16 major projects and over 147 sub-projects, it has encompassed a vast and hugely complex programme of works. Key Data Start Year September 2002 Project Type New terminal construction Location London, UK Contract Value  £4.2bn Completion Phase 1 April 2008Phase 2 2011 Key Players Sponsors BAA, private investment, HM Government Lead Architect Richard Rogers Partnership Strategic Planning and Design Services Halcrow Group Ltd Cost Consultant Services E C Harris Group Ltd Turner and Townsend Group Planning Supervisor Bovis Engineering Ltd Structural Tunnel and Rail Consultant Mott MacDonald Ltd Project Management and Support Services Parsons Brinkerhoff Ltd Civil construction infrastructure and logistics delivery Laing ORourke Civil Engineering Ltd Architectural station design consultant architectural production and brief development HOK International Ltd Construction management Mace Ltd Technical features: In addition to the main terminal building, Terminal 5 also consists of two satellite buildings (the second of which will be completed by 2010), 60 aircraft stands, a new air traffic control tower, a 4,000 space multi storey car park, the creation of a new spur road from the M25, a 600 bed hotel, the diversion of two rivers and over 13 kilometres of bored tunnel, including extensions to the Heathrow Express and Piccadilly Line services. This work encompasses a multitude of construction related skills including civil engineering, building, highway engineering, mechanical  and  electrical engineering, tunnelling, railway engineering, specialist systems technology and project logistics management. The Stages of Construction: Stage1: Site preparation and enabling words Firstly the 260 hectare site was surveyed and excavated by archaeologists.   Preparation for construction then involved levelling the site, removing the sludge lagoons and building temporary facilities including roads, offices and logistics centres. Stage 2: Groundworks substructures This phase included the earthworks and the construction of the foundations and substructures for the terminal basements. It also included building the drainage systems and the rail tunnels.  Ã‚   A total of 9 million cubic meters of earth will have been excavated during the earthworks phase. A proportion of this earth was used to create the embankments for the M25 spur road and landscape the Colne Valley, while the rest is used to backfill the main site. Stage 3: Major structures This phase included erecting the huge free standing roof structure of the main terminal building (T5A), and its interior superstructure. It also included the superstructure and roof of the first satellite (T5B) as well as the multi-storey car park and ancillary buildings such as the energy centre. Stage 4: Fit out This involved the fit out of the buildings interiors including, the building services modules (ie, power, heating and ventilation systems), the baggage system, the track transit system (people mover) and specialist electronic systems.   It also included the fixtures and fittings and the retail areas. Stage 5: Implementation of operational readiness Operational readiness is necessary to ensure that Terminal 5s infrastructure and systems are fully complete and tested, that staff working in the terminal are properly trained and that all the necessary operational procedures for Terminal 5s opening day on 27 March 2008 are in place. Phase 2: Construction for the basements for the second satellite building (T5C) and additional aircraft stands commenced in 2006.   However, the main building structure will not be completed until 2010. Procurement Strategy Adopted T5 Agreement From the outset BAA recognised that the risk associated with such a huge and complex infrastructure project required a fresh approach to construction management.  Research conducted by BAA into major construction projects highlighted two key areas that seemed to undermine progress; cultural confusion and the reluctance to acknowledge risk.In a move to prevent Terminal 5 from suffering from costly delays and budget over-runs, BAA developed a unique and bespoke commercial partnering agreement with contractors and suppliers called The Terminal 5 agreement.  A contract based on relations and behaviours, it was designed to expose risk rather than transfer it to other parties. Advantages: a)UK construction best practice is expected as a minimum standard on, and in light of this the project has had to ensure key milestones are met on time, on cost and to high quality and safety standards. b)An incentive scheme encourages teams to work together in order to find the most efficient way of achieving these milestones. c)Through the agreement BAA accepts that it carries all of the risk for the construction project. d) Focus on managing out the cause of problems, not the effects if they happen e) Work in truly integrated teams in a successful, if uncertain environment f) Focus on proactively managing risk rather than avoiding litigation. g)With the burden of accountability lifted, those working on T5 can do so innovatively and positively. While traditional arrangements can result in a highly unproductive culture of blame and confrontation if something goes wrong, h)Under the T5 Agreement a premium is placed on delivering solutions and results. I)Many of the suppliers involved in Terminal 5 were brought on-board at the earliest stages of the planning process. This enabled completely integrated expert teams to work together to identify potential problems and issues before designs were finalised and fabrication and construction began. As a result the teams of suppliers and consultants are in a position to add value whilst designing safe solutions within the time, quality, cost and safety targets. j)UK construction best practice performance on Terminal 5 is expected as a minimum standard. In light of this, the project has to ensure key milestones are met on time, on cost and to high quality and safety standards. k) BAA only has a direct contractual relationship with ‘First Tier suppliers, of which there are around 60. It is the First Tier suppliers who are responsible for the appointment and management of ‘Second Tiersuppliers or subcontractors. In doing so they too are expected to operate within the spirit of the T5 Agreement. The English national stadium project at Wembley Key Facts about Wembley: The stadium will be used primarily for football and rugby league but will also, after adaptation, be capable of hosting major international athletics events. ! The project is expected to cost  £757 million and is scheduled for completion early in 2006. ! The Football Association is contributing  £148 million to the project and commercial lenders have provided debt facilities of  £433 million. ! The public sector funders are providing  £161 million ( £120 million of lottery money from Sport England,  £20 million from the Department for CultureMedia and Sport and  £21 million from the London Development Agency) to the project. ! The stadium will be owned and operated by Wembley National Stadium Limited,a wholly owned subsidiary of the Football Association. ! Profits from the operation of the stadium will be used by the Football Association in accordance with its objects for the benefit of football. ! Starting five years after the stadium opens, Wembley National Stadium Limited will donate one per cent of its turnover each year for distribution to sports education and other projects. Key Features: With 90,000 seats, the new Wembley is the largest stadium in the world with every seat under cover. This capacity is separated into 3 tiers of seating, with the lower tier holding 34,303 spectators, the middle one 16,932 and the upper one 39,165[14] The stadium contains 2,618 toilets, more than any other venue in the world.[15] The stadium has a circumference of 1  km (0.6  mi).[2] At its peak, there were more than 3,500 construction workers on site.[16] 4,000 separate piles form the foundations of the new stadium,[2] the deepest of which is 35  m (115  ft).[2] There are 56 km (35 miles) of heavy-duty power cables in the stadium.[2] 90,000  m ³ (120,000  cu  yds) of concrete and 23,000 tonnes (25,000 short tons) of steel were used in the construction of the new stadium.[2] The total length of the escalators is 400  m ( ¼Ã‚  mi).[2] The Wembley Arch has a diameter greater than that of a cross-channel train.[17][18]

Additive Manufacturing of Medical Implants: A Review

Additive Manufacturing of Medical Implants: A Review E. Gordon Wayne State University College of Engineering Abstract Additive manufacturing has numerous applications and is gaining interest in the biomedical field. The quality of additively manufactured parts is constantly improving, which contributes to their increased use for medical implants in patients. This paper reviews the literature on surgical additive manufacturing applications used on patients, with a focus on the customization of 3D printed implants and the ability to incorporate scaffolds on the implant surface. Scholarly literature databases were used to find general information on the focus topics, as well as case studies of surgical applications of additive manufacturing implants in rodents and humans. The advantages of additive manufacturing medical implants include improved medical outcome, cost effectiveness, and reduced surgery time, as well as customization and incorporated scaffold. Overall, the most effective type of additive manufacturing for the medical implant application is electron beam melting using Ti-6Al-4V because it can produce a high quality, high purity biocompatible implant that has the required mechanical properties. Keywords: Additive Manufacturing, Customized implants, Scaffold, 3D Printing, Ti-6Al-4V Introduction In recent years, additive manufacturing technologies have improved significantly, thus expanding the fields and applications for which they can be used. These 3D printing technologies create physical models from digital models without the need for tool and die and process planning. Additive manufacturing can fabricate prototypes of complex shapes in a variety of materials such as metals, polymers, and nylon. Metal components, in particular, can be used for practical applications such as medical implants: devices manufactured to replace or support a biological structure. The biocompatibility of these metallic devices must be considered, creating rigorous requirements for the material selection and final material properties of the structure. Studies have shown that additive manufacturing successfully produces implants with biocompatible materials that meet the structural requirements [1-6]. 3D printing medical implants can provide many benefits such as the customization and personalization of the implants, cost-effectiveness, increased productivity, and the ability to incorporate scaffold. Using custom made implants, fixtures and surgical tools can help decrease surgery time and patient recovery time, while increasing the likelihood of a successful surgery [7]. Another benefit is the cost efficiency of 3D printing medial implants. Traditional manufacturing methods are cheaper for large quantities, but are more expensive for personalized designs and small production runs [8, 9]. 3D printing is especially cost effective for small-sized implants like spinal or dental implants. 3D printing is also faster than traditional manufacturing if a custom implant needs to be made; traditional methods require milling, forging, and a long delivery time while 3D printing may only take about a day [1]. Another notable benefit of additive manufacturing is the ability to share data files of designs. Files saved as an .STL can be downloaded and printed anywhere in the world. The National Institutes of Health established a 3D Print Exchange to promote open-source sharing of 3D print files for medical models [7]. The most significant benefits for the biomedical industry, however, are the ability to manufacture biocompatible materials, customize implants, and incorporate a porous scaffold surface. Types of Additive Manufacturing The additive manufacturing approach uses computer software to slice a complex 3D model into layers of 2D cross-sections with a minute thickness. The layers are then printed layer by layer depending on the particular method chosen for the application. There are dozens of types of additive manufacturing systems on the market, some of the most common being stereolithography (SLA), direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), selective laser sintering (SLS), selective laser melting (SLM), 3D printing (3DP), and electron beam melting (EBM). These systems are classified according to the form of the raw material, which can be powder, liquid, or solid form [8]. The two types of additive manufacturing that are most commonly used for medical implants are SLS and EBM. Figure 1: Process chain for SLM and EBM. The pre-processing before manufacturing includes 3D modeling, file preparation, and slicing of the 3D model into layers. Post-processing may include heat treatment and polishing of fabricated parts [10]. Selective Laser Sintering An SLS printer uses a powder form of material for printing objects. A laser fuses a single layer of powder by drawing the shape of the object according to the first 2D cross-section of the 3D model. Immediately, the build platform is lowered by the defined layer thickness and another layer of powder is rolled across [10]. The process repeats, fusing each layer one at a time to form the object. SLS can be used with metal, ceramic, and plastic powders. The precision of the laser and the diameter of the powder determines the degree of detail of the final object, so it is possible to create detailed structures with an SLS printer [11]. Figure 2: Schematic of SLS system. The key components of SLM include the laser system (a fiber laser, F-theta and galvanometer used to control the laser beam movement) and the mechanical system (movable build platform and powder roller) [10]. Electron Beam Melting An EBM printer uses a powder form of material for printing objects, similar to SLS. However, while SLS uses a laser to fuse each layer of the powder, EBM uses an electron beam. This energy is delivered through an electric circuit between a tungsten filament inside of the electron gun and the build platform [10]. An electric current heats the filament to emit a beam of electrons [1]. Electric energy is transformed to heat energy which melts the powder on the build platform. The process continues similarly to SLS, where powder is spread across the platform in a thin layer, the cross-section of the object is melted, and then the build platform lowers by the layer thickness. A key element of EBM is that the build chamber is kept under vacuum, which allows the object to be maintain great detail (70-100ÃŽÂ ¼m) [1]. Figure 3: Schematic of EBM system. The key components of EBM include an electron beam system (electron gun assembly, electron beam focusing lens and deflection coils used to control the electron beam) and the mechanical system (movable powder rake and fixed powder cassettes) [10]. Materials of Medical Implants The most common metals used for surgical implants are stainless steel 316L (ASTM F138), Cobalt based alloys (ASTM F75 and ASTM F799) and titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V (ASTM F67 and F136) [12, 13]. However, these metals have disadvantages such as the potential release of toxic ions and particles due to corrosion that cause inflammation and allergic reactions, affecting biocompatibility [14]. Also, the materials that have an elastic modulus that is not similar to natural bone stimulate new bone growth poorly [12]. Despite this, the low Youngs modulus, high strength, and nonlinear elasticity of titanium-based alloys make it the least harmful choice [3]. The most commonly used titanium alloy is Ti-6Al-4V (Ti64) because it also has a better resistance to corrosion compared to stainless steels and cobalt-based alloys [15]. Additive manufacturing has also been done using Tantalum. Tantalum is biocompatible, hard, ductile, and chemically resistant, but it is expensive and difficult to machine [6] . Titanium based alloys are superior, thus Ti-6Al-V4 is the best material for additive manufacturing medical implants. Material Youngs modulus (GPa) Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) Yield strength (MPa) Elongation (%) TiTa 75.77  ± 4.04 924.64  ± 9.06 882.77  ± 19.60 11.72  ± 1.13 Ti6Al4V 131.51  ± 16.40 1165.69  ± 107.25 1055.59  ± 63.63 6.10  ± 2.57 cpTi 111.59  ± 2.65 703.05  ± 16.22 619.57  ± 20.25 5.19  ± 0.32 Table 1: Tensile properties of SLS produced TiTa, Ti6Al4V and commercially pure titanium samples (n = 5) [16]. Customized Implants Additive manufacturing allows for the design and fabrication of customized prosthetic implants that are created to meet the specific needs of a patient, such as the size, shape, and mechanical properties of the implant. Additive Manufacturing reduces design time as well as manufacturing time because the implant pattern is computer generated with CT and MRI scans, thus removing the need for a physical model [8]. The ability to produce custom implants quickly solves a common problem with orthopedics where standard implants do not always fit the needs of certain patients. Previously, surgeons had to manually modify implants to make them fit the patient [7]. These techniques can be used by professionals in a variety of specialties such as neurosurgery, orthopedics, craniofacial and plastic surgery, oncology, and implant dentistry [8]. One example of an application in which a customized implant is required is craniofacial reconstruction. Craniofacial abnormalities are a diverse group of congenital defects that affect a large number of people and can be acquired at birth or due to injuries or tumors [8]. Standard cranial implants rarely fit a patient precisely because skulls have irregular shapes [7]. The custom implant can be created by using a CT scan to create a 3D virtual model of the patients skull. Then the model can be used with CAD software to design an implant that would perfectly fit the patient [8]. Using custom implants has shown to improve the morphology for large and complex-shaped cranial abnormalities, and some researchers have observed a greater improvement in neurological functions than after similar surgeries using traditionally manufactured implants [17, 18]. Figure 4: Skull model and customized implant for craniofacial reconstruction surgery [8]. Scaffold Additive manufacturing medical implants allows the porosity of the surface to be designed, controlled, and interconnected, which provides better bone growth into implants, thus decreasing the chances of the body rejecting the implant. Additionally, the rough surface quality of 3D printed implants enhances bone-implant fixation [1]. Without scaffold, there is a risk of bone weakening and bone loss around the implant, which is a consequence of stress shielding due to high stiffness of materials [19]. The probability of this problem occurring is lessened when bone can grow into a porous surface of the implant [19]. Cellular lattice structures are classified by stochastic and non-stochastic geometries. The pores in stochastic structures have random variations in size and shape, while the pores in non-stochastic structures have repeating patterns of particular shapes and sizes [10]. The main challenge in additively manufacturing scaffolds is the difficulty to remove the loose powder from within the pores, but an advantage is that additive manufacturing technology allows for the manufacturing of different types of scaffolds if a design requires it; different regions of the implant could have different porosities [1, 10]. The procedure used to achieve the porous areas with traditional manufacturing methods includes coating a smooth surface with other materials such as plasma-sprayed titanium or a titanium wire mesh; however, combining different metals increases the risk of the body rejecting the implant. Additive manufacturing allows the smooth and porous surfaces to be fabricated with the same material, thus decreasing that risk. A variety of additive manufacturing techniques can be used to create the lattice structure, but scaffold can be fabricated by SLS or EBM without the need for support structures, thus making it the most effective method [5]. Figure 5: Acetabular cup with designedFigure 6: (a) Porous femoral stem on the building porous surface [10].platform, (b) post-processed femoral stem [5]. Conclusion There are many advantages to using additive manufacturing to fabricate surgical implants. These benefits include improved medical outcome, cost effectiveness, reduced surgery time, as well as customization and scaffold. Overall, the most effective type of additive manufacturing for the medical implant application is Electron Beam Melting because it can produce a high quality, high purity biocompatible implant that has the required mechanical properties. The recommended metal to use for most implants is the titanium-based alloy Ti-6Al-4V because of its low Youngs modulus, high strength, nonlinear elasticity, and corrosion resistance. Overall, additive manufacturing is an excellent production method for medical implants because it allows surgeons to customize implants and scaffold to the specific needs of the patient. References 1.Petrovic, V., et al., Additive manufacturing solutions for improved medical implants. 2012: INTECH Open Access Publisher. 2.Ahn, Y.K., et al., Mechanical and microstructural characteristics of commercial purity titanium implants fabricated by electron-beam additive manufacturing. Materials Letters, 2017. 187: p. 64-67. 3.Yan, L.M., et al., Improved mechanical properties of the new Ti-15Ta-xZr alloys fabricated by selective laser melting for biomedical application. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2016. 688: p. 156-162. 4.Caldarise, S., Hip joint prostheses and methods for manufacturing the same. 1996, Google Patents. 5.Simoneau, C., et al., Development of a porous metallic femoral stem: Design, manufacturing, simulation and mechanical testing. Materials Design, 2017. 114: p. 546-556. 6.Wauthle, R., et al., Additively manufactured porous tantalum implants. Acta Biomaterialia, 2015. 14: p. 217-225. 7.Ventola, C.L., Medical Applications for 3D Printing: Current and Projected Uses. Pharmacy and Therapeutics, 2014. 39(10): p. 704-711. 8.Jardini, A.L., et al., Cranial reconstruction: 3D biomodel and custom-built implant created using additive manufacturing. Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery, 2014. 42(8): p. 1877-1884. 9.DUrso, P.S., et al., Custom cranioplasty using stereolithography and acrylic. British Journal of Plastic Surgery, 2000. 53(3): p. 200-204. 10.Sing, S.L., et al., Laser and electronà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ beam powderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ bed additive manufacturing of metallic implants: A review on processes, materials and designs. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 2016. 34(3): p. 369-385. 11.Hoy, M.B., 3D printing: making things at the library. Med Ref Serv Q, 2013. 32(1): p. 94-9. 12.Kokubo, T., et al., Bioactive metals: preparation and properties. J Mater Sci Mater Med, 2004. 15(2): p. 99-107. 13.Staiger, M.P., et al., Magnesium and its alloys as orthopedic biomaterials: A review. Biomaterials, 2006. 27(9): p. 1728-1734. 14.Polo-Corrales, L., M. Latorre-Esteves, and J.E. Ramirez-Vick, Scaffold Design for Bone Regeneration. Journal of nanoscience and nanotechnology, 2014. 14(1): p. 15-56. 15.Dinda, G.P., L. Song, and J. Mazumder, Fabrication of Ti-6Al-4V Scaffolds by Direct Metal Deposition. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions a-Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science, 2008. 39A(12): p. 2914-2922. 16.Sing, S.L., W.Y. Yeong, and F.E. Wiria, Selective laser melting of titanium alloy with 50 wt% tantalum: Microstructure and mechanical properties. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2016. 660: p. 461-470. 17.Rotaru, H., et al., Cranioplasty With Custom-Made Implants: Analyzing the Cases of 10 Patients. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 2012. 70(2): p. e169-e176. 18.Agner, C., M. Dujovny, and M. Gaviria, Neurocognitive Assessment Before and after Cranioplasty. Acta Neurochirurgica, 2002. 144(10): p. 1033-1040. 19.Shah, F.A., et al., Long-term osseointegration of 3D printed CoCr constructs with an interconnected open-pore architecture prepared by electron beam melting. Acta Biomaterialia, 2016. 36: p. 296-309. Bacillus Thuringiensis: Distribution and Habitat Bacillus Thuringiensis: Distribution and Habitat LITERATURE REVIEW For several decades since its discovery, formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis (B. t.) have been seen as the ideal means of controlling Lepidoteran pests in agriculture because of the many attributes that differentiate this microbial insecticide from the synthetic chemical formulations. No toxicity to mammals, environmental friendliness, apparent immunity to the pesticide resistance phenomenon (no longer true), good integration with other pest control methods and the possibility of being mass produced at farm level at low cost, all made B. thuringiensis the much-needed tool for IPM programmes in developing countries. Research of almost 85 years reveals that Bacillus spp., especially B. thuringiensis and Bacillus sphaericus are the most potent biopesticides (Boucias Pendland, 1998). B. thuringiensis is a species of bacteria that has insecticidal properties that affects a specific range of insect orders. There are at least 34 subspecies of  B. thuringiensis (also called serotypes o r varieties) and possibly over 800 strain isolates (Swadener, 1994). B. thuringiensis accounts for about 5-8% of Bacillus spp. population in the environment (Hastowo et al., 1992). Till date more than 130 species of lepidopteran, dipteran and coleopteran insects are found to be controlled by  B. thuringiensis (Dean, 1984). Historical Background of B. thuringiensis B. thuringiensis are interesting and important bacteria used in the biological control of insect pest which form toxic crystal proteins at the time of sporulation. Perhaps the most well known and widely used biopesticide comes from B. thuringiensis, a bacterium that produces insecticidal proteins during its sporulation. This common soil bacterium, most abundantly found in grain dust from soil and other grain storage facilities, was discovered first in Japan in 1901 by Ishawata and then in 1911 in Germany by Berliner (Baum et al., 1999). It was subsequently found that thousands of strains of B. thuringiensis exist (Lereclus, 1993). The bacterium was isolated from diseased larvae of Anagasta kuehniella, and this finding led to the establishment of B. thuringiensis as microbial insecticide. The first record of its application to control insects was in Hungary at the end of 1920, and in Yugoslavia at the beginning of 1930s, it was applied to control the European corn borer (Lords, 2005). Sporine which was the first commercial product of B. thuringiensis was available in 1938 in France (Waiser, 1986) for the control of flour moth (Jacobs, 1951). Unfortunately, the product was used only for a very short time, due to World War II (Nester et al., 2002). Formation of transgenic plant was also observed. The first reports of insertion of genes encoding for B. thuringiensis delta-endotoxins into plants came in 1987 and the first transgenic plants to express B. thuringiensis toxins were tobacco and tomato plants (van Frankenhuyzen, 1993). In 1957 pacific yeast products commercialized the first strain on B. thuringiensis, named as Thuricide due to the increasing concern of biopesticide over the use of chemical insecticides. B. thuringiensis is a gram-positive spore-forming bacterium that produces crystalline proteins called deltaendotoxins during its stationary phase of growth (Schnepf et al., 1998). The crystal is released to the environment after analysis of the cell wall at the end of sporulation, and it can account for 20 to 30% of the dry weight of the sporulated cells (Schnepf et al., 1998) Distribution Habitat of B. thuringiensis This bacterium is distributed worldwide (Martin Travers, 1989). The soil has been described as its main habitat; however it has also been isolated from foliage, water, storage grains, and dead insects, etc (Iriarte Caballero, 2001). Isolation of strains from dead insects has been the main source for commercially used varieties, which include kurstaki, isolated from A. kuehniella; israelensis, isolated from mosquitoes, and tenebrionis, isolated from Tenebrio monitor larvae (Ninfa Rosas, 2009; Iriarte Caballero, 2001).. The spores of B. thuringiensis persist in soil, and vegetative growth occurs when nutrients are available (DeLucca et al., 1981; Akiba, 1986; Ohba Aizawa, 1986; Travers et al., 1987; Martin Travers, 1989). DeLucca et al., (1981) found that B. thuringiensis represented between 0.5% and 0.005% of all Bacillus species isolated from soil samples in the USA. Martin Travers (1989) recovered B. thuringiensis from soils globally. Meadows (1993) isolated B. thuringiensis from 785 of 1115 soil samples, and the percentage of samples that contained  B. thuringiensis ranged from 56% in New Zealand to 94% in samples from Asia and central and southern Africa. Ohba Aizawa (1986) isolated B. thuringiensis from 136 out of 189 soil samples in Japan. There are several theories on the ecological niche filled by B. thuringiensis. Unlike most insect pathogenic microbes, B. thuringiensis generally recycle poorly and rarely cause natural epizootics in insects, leading to speculation that B. thuringiensis is essentially a soil micro-organism that possesses incidental insecticidal activity (Martin Travers 1989). Evidence to support this view is that B. thuringiensis are commonly reported in the environment independent of insects and there is a lack of association between occurrence and insect activity (van Frankenhuyzen 1993). Meadows (1993) suggested four possible explanations for the presence of B. thuringiensis in soil: 1) rarely grows in soil but is deposited there by insects; 2) may be infective to soil-dwelling insects (as yet undiscovered); 3) may grow in soil when nutrients are available; and 4) an affinity with B. cereus. B. thuringiensis has been found extensively in the phylloplane. Numerous  B. thuringiensis subspecies have been recovered from coniferous trees, deciduous trees and vegetables, as well as from other herbs (Smith Couche, 1991; Damgaard et al., 1997). B. thuringiensis deposited on the upper side of leaves (exposed to the sun) may remain effective for only 1-2 days, but B. thuringiensis on the underside of leaves (i.e. protected from the sun) may remain active for 7-10 days (Swadner, 1994). B. thuringiensis kurstaki has been recovered from rivers and public water distribution systems after an aerial application of Thuricide 16B (Ohana, 1987). Crystal Composition and Morphology The existence of parasporal inclusions in B. thuringiensis was first noted in 1915 (Berliner, 1915), but their protein composition was not delineated until the 1950s (Angus, 1954). Hannay (1953) detected the crystalline fine structure that is a property of most of the parasporal inclusions. B. thuringiensis subspecies can synthesize more than one inclusion, which may contain different ICPs (Hannay, 1953). Depending on their ICP composition, the crystals have various forms (bipyramidal, cuboidal, flat rhomboid, or a composite with two or more crystal types) (Bulla et al., 1977; Hà ¶fte Whiteley, 1989). A partial correlation between crystal morphology, ICP composition, and bioactivity against target insects has been established (Bulla et al., 1977; Hà ¶fte Whiteley, 1989; Lynch Baumann, 1985). Classification of B. thuringiensis subspecies The classification of B. thuringiensis subspecies based on the serological analysis of the flagella (H) antigens was introduced in the early 1960s (de Barjac Bonnefoi, 1962). This classification by serotype has been supplemented by morphological and biochemical criteria (de Barjac, 1981). Until 1977, only 13 B. thuringiensis subspecies had been described, and at that time all subspecies were toxic to Lepidopteran larvae only. The discovery of other subspecies toxic to Diptera (Goldberg Margalit, 1977) and Coleoptera (Krieg et al., 1983) enlarged the host range and markedly increased the number of subspecies. Up to the end of 1998, over 67 subspecies based on flagellar H-serovars had been identified. Genetics of ICP In the early 1980s, it was established that most genes coding for the ICPs reside on large transmissible plasmids, of which most are readily exchanged between strains by conjugation (Gonzà ¡lez Carlton, 1980; Gonzà ¡lez et al., 1981). Since these initial studies, numerous ICP genes have been cloned, sequenced and used to construct  B. thuringiensis strains with novel insecticidal spectra (Hà ¶fte Whiteley, 1989). The currently known crystal (cry) gene types encode ICPs that are specific to either Lepidoptera (cryI), Diptera and Lepidoptera (cryII), Coleoptera (cryIII), Diptera (cryIV), or Coleoptera and Lepidoptera (cryV) (Hà ¶fte Whiteley, 1989). All ICPs described to date attack the insect gut upon ingestion. To date, each of the proteolytically activated ICP molecules with insecticidal activity has a variable C-terminal domain, which is responsible for receptrecognition (host susceptibility), and a conserved  N-terminal domain, which induces pore formation (toxicity) (Li et al., 1991). Most naturally occurring B. thuringiensis strains contain ICPs active against a single order of insects. However, conjugative transfer between B. thuringiensis strains or related species can occur, resulting in new strains with various plasmid contents (Gonzà ¡lez Carlton, 1980). Thus the mobility of the cry genes and the exchange of plasmids may explain the diverse and complex activity spectra observed in B. thuringiensis (Gonzà ¡lez Carlton, 1980; Gonzà ¡lez et al., 1981; Gonzà ¡lez et al., 1982; Reddy et al., 1987; Jarrett Stephenson, 1990). New B. thuringiensis strains have been developed by conjugation that is toxic to two insect orders. Nutritional status of B. thuringiensis Since sporulation and germination in bacilli are dependent on the nutritional status of the organism (Hardwick Foster, 1952), a study of the nutritional requirement of  B. thuringiensis var. thuringiensis is important for delineating the control mechanisms which regulate spore and parasporal crystal formation. Certain amino acids support growth, sporulation and crystal formation of B. thuringiensis var. thuringiensis, while others inhibit the growth (Singer et al., 1966; Singer Rogoff, 1968; Bulla et al., 1975; Nickerson Bulla, 1975; Rajalakshmi Shethna, 1977). A lower concentration of cystine (Nickerson Bulla, 1975) or cysteine (Rajalakshmi Shethna, 1977) promotes growth, sporulation and crystal formation in Î’. thuringiensis, while at a higher concentration of cys/cysSH, only the vegetative growth was observed, (Rajalakshmi Shethna, 1977). Classification of B. thuringiensis The classification of B. thuringiensis subspecies based on the serological analysis of the flagella (H) antigens was introduced in the early 1960s (de Barjac Bonnefoi, 1962). This classification by serotype has been supplemented by morphological and biochemical criteria (de Barjac, 1981). Many strains of B. thuringiensis have been isolated and classified within more than 20 different varieties by serological techniques. On the basis of their potency for insect these varieties have been grouped into five pathotypes: Lepidopteran-Specific (e.g. B. thuringiensis .var Kurstaki) Dipteran-Specific (e.g. B. thuringiensis . var israelensis) Coleopteran-Specific (e.g. B. thuringiensis .var. tenebrionis) Those active against Lepidoptera and Dipter(e.g. B. thuringiensis . var. aizawai) Those with no toxicity recorded in insects (e.g. B. thuringiensis . var. Dakota) Mode of Action The ICP structure and function have been reviewed in detail by Schnepf et al., (1998). Binding of the ICP to putative receptors is a major determinant of ICP specificity and the formation of pores in the midgut epithelial cells is a major mechanism of toxicity (Van Frankenhuyzen, 1993). After ingestion of B. thuringiensis by insect the crystal is dissolved in the insects alkaline gut. Then the digestive enzymes that are present in insects body break down the crystal structure and activate B. thuringiensiss insecticidal component, called the delta-endotoxin (Swadner, 1994). The delta-endotoxin binds to the cells lining the midgut membrane and creates pores in the membrane, upsetting the guts ion balance. The insect soon stops feeding and starves to death (Gill et al., 1992). Target Organisms In the past decades, B. thuringiensis Cry toxins were classified according to the target pest they attacked (Hofte Whiteley, 1998); however, due to the dual toxic activity exhibited by some cry genes and the inconsistencies in the original classification proposed by Hà ¶fte and Whiteley(1998), Crickmore et al., (1998) proposed a revision of the nomenclature for insecticidal crystal proteins, based on the ability of a crystal protein to exhibit some experimentally verifiable toxic effect in a target organism (Crickmore et al., 1998; Hà ¶fte Whiteley, 1998). The diversity of B. thuringiensis is demonstrated in the almost 70 serotypes and the 92 subspecies described to date (Galan-Wong et al., 2006). It is well known that many insects are susceptible to the toxic activity of  B. thuringiensis; among them, lepidopterans have been exceptionally well studied, and many toxins have shown activity against them (Jarret Stephens., 1990; Sefinejad et al., 2008). Order Lepidoptera encompasses the majority of susceptible species belonging to agriculturally important families such as Cossidae, Gelechiidae, Lymantriidae, Noctuidae, Pieridae, Pyralidae, Thaumetopoetidae, Tortricidae, and Yponomeutidae (Iriarte Caballero, 2001). General patterns of use: Commercial applications of B. thuringiensis have been directed mainly against lepidopteran pests of agricultural and forest crops; however, in recent years strains active against coleopteran pests have also been marketed (Tomlin, 1997). Strains of B. thuringiensis kurstaki active against dipteran vectors of parasitic disease organisms have been used in public health programmes (Tomlin, 1997). Applications in agriculture and forestry Commercial use of B. thuringiensis on agricultural and forest crops dates back nearly  30 years, when it became available in France (Van Frankenhuyzen, 1993). Use of  B. thuringiensis has increased greatly in recent years and the number of companies with a commercial interest in B. thuringiensis products has increased from four in 1980 to at least 18 (Van Frankenhuyzen, 1993). Several commercial B. thuringiensis products with B. thuringiensis aizawai, B. thuringiensis kuehniella or B. thuringiensis tenebrionise have been applied to crops using conventional spraying technology. Various formulations have been used on major crops such as cotton, maize, soybeans, potatoes, tomatoes, various crop trees and stored grains. Formulations have ranged from ultralow-volume oil to high-volume, wettable powder and aqueous suspensions (Tomlin, 1997). In the main, naturally occurring B. thuringiensis strains have been used, but transgenic microorganisms expressing B. thuringiensis toxins have been developed by conjugation and by genetic manipulation, and in some cases, these have reached the commercial market (Carlton et al., 1990). These modified organisms have been developed in order to increase host range, prolong field activity or improve delivery of toxins to target organisms. For example, the coleopteran-active cryIIIA gene has been transferred to a lepidopteran-active B. thuringiensis kuehniella (Carlton et al., 1 990). A plasmid bearing an ICP gene has been transferred from B. thuringiensis to a non-pathogenic leaf-colonizing isolate of Pseudomonas fluorescens; fixation of the transgenic cells produces ICP contained within a membrane which prolongs persistence (Gelernter, 1990). Applications in vector control B. thuringiensis Kurstaki has been used to control both mosquitos and blackflies in large-scale programmes (Lacey et al., 1982; Chilcott et al., 1983; Car, 1984; Car de Moor, 1984; Cibulsky Fusco, 1987; Becker Margalit, 1993; Bernhard Utz, 1993). For example, in Germany 23 tonnes of B. thuringiensis Kurstaki wettable powder and 19 000 litres of liquid concentrate were used to control mosquitos (Anopheles and Culex species) between 1981 and 1991 in the Upper Rhine Valley (Becker Margalit, 1993). In China, approximately 10 tonnes of B. thuringiensis Kurstaki have been used in recent years to control the malarial vector, Anopheles sinensis. Resistance of Insect Populations A number of insect populations of several different species with different levels of resistance to B. thuringiensis have been obtained by laboratory selection experiments during the last 15 years (Schnepf et al., 1998). The species include Plodia interpunctella, Cadra cautella, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, Chrysomela scripta, Tricholplusia ni, Spodoptera littoralis, Spodoptera exigua, Heliothis virescens, Ostrinia nubilalis and Culex quinquefasciatus (Schnepf et al., 1998). The Indian meal moth, a pest of grain storage areas, was the first insect to develop resistance to B. thuringiensis. Kurstaki (Swadner, 1994). Resistance progresses more quickly in laboratory experiments than under field conditions due to higher selection pressure in the laboratory (Tabashnik, 1991). No indications of insect resistance to B .thuringiensis were observed in the field, until the development of resistance was ob-served in the diamondback moth in crops where B. thuringiensis had been used repeatedly. Since then, resistance has been observed in the laboratory in the tobacco budworm, the Colorado potato beetle and other insect species (McGaughey, 1992) B. thuringiensiss Ecological Impacts Some of the most serious concerns about widespread use of B. thuringiensis as a pest control technique come from the effects it can have on animals other than the pest targeted for control. All B. thuringiensis products can kill organisms other than their intended targets. In turn, the animals that depend on these organisms for food are also impacted (Swadner, 1994). Effect on Beneficial insects: Many insects are not pests, and any pest management technique needs to be especially concerned about those that are called beneficials, the insects that feed or prey on pest species (Swadner, 1994). B. thuringiensis has impacts on a number of beneficial species. For example, studies of a wasp that is a parasite of the meal moth (Plodia interpunctella) found that treatment with B. thuringiensis reduced the number of eggs produced by the parasitic wasp, and the percentage of those eggs that hatched (Salama, 1993). Production and hatchability of eggs of a predatory bug were also decreased (Salama, 1991). Other insects: Many insects that do not have as directly beneficial importance to agriculture are important in the function and structure of ecosystems. A variety of studies have shown that B. thuringiensis applications can disturb insect communities (Swadner, 1994). Research following large-scale B. thuringiensis applications to kill gypsy moth larvae in Lane County, Oregon, found that the number of oak-feeding caterpillar species was reduced for three years following spraying, and the number of caterpillars was reduced for two years (Miller, 1990). Birds: Because many birds feed on the caterpillars and other insects affected by B. thuringiensis applications, it is not surprising that impacts of B. thuringiensis spraying on birds have been documented (Swadner, 1994). In New Hampshire, when B. thuringiensis-treatment reduced caterpillar abundance, black-throated blue warblers made fewer nesting attempts and also brought fewer caterpillars to their nestlings (Rodenhouse, 1992). Effects on Humans Eight human volunteers ingested 1 gram of a B. thuringiensis kuehniella formulation  (3 ÃÆ'- 109 spores/g of powder) daily for 5 days. Of the eight volunteers, five also inhaled 100 mg of the B. thuringiensis kuehniella powder daily for five days. Comprehensive medical examinations immediately before, after, and 4 to 5 weeks later failed to demonstrate any adverse health effects, and all the blood chemistry and urinalysis tests were negative (Fisher Rosner, 1959). Pivovarov et al., (1977) reported that ingestion of foods contaminated with  B. thuringiensis gastroenteitis at concentrations of 105 to 109 cells/g caused nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and tenesmus, colic-like pains in the abdomen, and fever in three of the four volunteers studied. The toxicity of the B. thuringiensis gastroenteritis strain may have been due to beta-exotoxin (Ray, 1990). In a purified form, some of the proteins produced by B. thuringiensis are acutely toxic to mammals. However, in their natural form, acute toxicity of commonly-used  B. thuringiensis varieties is limited to caterpillars, mosquito larvae, and beetle larvae (Swadner, 1994). Special Concerns about B. thuringiensis Toxicity The earliest tests done regarding B. thuringiensiss toxicity were conducted using B. thuringiensis var. thuringiensis, a B. thuringiensis strain known to contain a second toxin called beta-exotoxin (Swadner, 1994). The beta-exotoxin is toxic to vertebrates, with an LD 50 (median lethal dose; the dose that kills 50 percent of a population of test animals) of 13-18 milligrams per kilogram of body weight (mg/kg) in mice when injected into the abdomen. An oral dose of 200 mg/kg per day killed mice after eight days (swadner, 1994) Beta-exotoxin also causes genetic damage to human blood cells (Meretoja, 1977).

Plagiarism and the Internet :: Cheating Education Essays Papers

Plagiarism and the Internet A major concern among college students, high school students, professors and teachers is plagiarism. Most students are unaware of what exactly plagiarism is. They all have general ideas, but most donÏ€t know the extent to which it spans. On the other side, teachers and professors are unaware of how to handle the situation. All the technological advances and the World Wide Web make it easier for students to pass off anotherÏ€s work as their own. Plagiarism can be defined as using anotherÏ€s words or ideas as your own without stating the source of information. This not only includes words or ideas, but pictures, graphs, charts, and statistics. The only case where citing is unnecessary is when the fact is common knowledge that can be found in a variety of places and most people know about it. Students who plagiarize from the internet, donÏ€t even consider it really plagiarizing. They feel that since it is not a hard copy of the work that it really isnÏ€t wrong. This goes back to the idea that students today arenÏ€t even sure what to consider plagiarism. With the creation of the World Wide Web, students have the ability to access great amounts of information at a faster speed. Years ago, in order to plagiarize students had to spend hours searching through books to copy information from to write a paper. The internet today contains information on so many topics, that is almost impossible to not find what you are looking for. There are even websites that specialize in providing students with papers. The task of plagiarizing from the internet has become so popular that according to a survey found in Education Week, ≠¥54% of students admitted to plagiarizing from the internet≠¤ (≠¥Statistics≠¤ 1). The commonness of plagiarizing has grown so much from past decades that is becoming hard to control. Although, plagiarism has become so easily accomplished, the same can not be said for catching plagiarists. There is just too much information of the World Wide Web, that it makes it almost impossible for plagiarists to be caught in the act.

Aspects of Marriage Present in Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen :: Jane Austen Pride and Prejudice Marriage Essays

Aspects of Marriage Present in Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen There are lots of aspects of marriages in Jane Austen’s novel Pride and Prejudice. There are marriages of love, convenience, physical attraction and mercenary. The marriage between Mr. Wickham and Lydia is partly due to physical attraction and mercenary. The marriage between Elizabeth ad Mr. Darcy and Jane and Mr. Bingley are due to love. The marriage between Mr. Collins and Charlotte Lucas is base on convenience. The Marriage between Mr and Mrs Bennet is also due to physical attraction. The novel was set in 1796 and was published in 1813. The England during this period of time was far more class conscious. The main characters in this novel come from a class called gentry; this is the class above the emerging professional class and below aristocracy. Class was more to do with breeding than with wealth. Rules were set for everything, rules for dressing, rules for travelling, rules or introducing yourself to others and rules for behaving. In this period of time women were not allowed to work. However they could become governesses. They could not inherit wealth from their father, and the Bennet sisters were no exception therefore Mr. Collins was their heir to Mr. Bennet’s property. The marriage between Mr. and Mrs. Bennet was based on physical attraction. You can see that they do not understand each other. There is a contrast between both of their character. Mr.Bennet is intellectual and likes to spend time reading in the library while Mrs. Bennet is loud, hasty and likes to spend her time gossiping and trying to finding husbands for her daughters. Mr. Bennet enjoys mocking his wife â€Å"†¦ I have respect for your nerves they are my old friends†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Mr. and Mrs Bennet also have different opinions and ideas of their daughter’s future â€Å"†¦ Your mother will never see your face if you do not marry Mr. Collins, and I will never see you again if you do†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . You can tell that this is a marriage based on physical attraction because Mr. Bennet advises his daughter not to make the same mistake that he did my marring Mrs. Bennet â€Å"†¦I know that you could be neither happy nor respectable to your husband, unless you truly esteemed your husband†¦. My child, let me not have the grief of seeing you unable to respect you partner in life†¦Ã¢â‚¬  he is in a way hinting that he cannot respect his wife. Mrs. Bennet is unaware of this as she dose not know her husband very well. Mrs. Bennet’s character is very similar to the character of Lydia. Both like officers and both act loud and hastily.

Bismarck: Master Planner or Opportunist?

Unification of Germany Example Essays. Bismarck Master Planner or Opportunist? | | | | |Bismarck later declared that he had carefully planned unification of Germany in 5 clear | | |steps from 1862. He said that he had planned: 1. To Obtain Russian Neutrality; 2.To trick | | |Austria into declaring War; 3. To ensure French Neutrality; 4. To Treat Austria Leniently | | |after Defeat; 5. To Trick France into Declaring War. | |INTRODUCTION: |Other Historians have recently claimed that rather than plan unification, Bismarck was a | | |skilful diplomat who used events as opportunities to promote Prussian interests. | |Regardless of whether Bismarck planned unification or used events as opportunities he | | |definitely had a favourable ‘hand of cards’ which he inherited when he became | | |Minister-President in 1862 which allowed him to unify Germany by 1871. | | | | | |1. To obtain Russian Neutrality. | | | | |Evidence for Plan: | | |He obtained Russian neutrality for the l ater War with Austria through the Alvensleben | | |Convention of 1863. This meant Russian Poles who escaped over the border into Prussian | | |Poland would be returned to the Tsar. | | | | |Evidence against Plan: | | |It is unlikely that Bismarck knew the Poles would revolt in advance and it seems more likely| |STAGE 1 MASTER PLAN |that he helped the Tsar to prevent the Prussian Poles rebelling too. | | |The International condemnation at Alvensleben led Bismarck to play down the event’s | | |significance which outraged the Tsar. | |It almost led to him being sacked by William I. | | | | | |Analysis: | | |Despite gaining Russian neutrality in the following War against Austria Bismarck achieved it| | |through luck rather than planning.The Tsar was angrier at Austria not supporting Russia in | | |the Crimean War than at Bismarck’s public back down over Alvensleben. He did achieve | | |neutrality but it seems unlikely that he would have planned such a dangerous route. | | | | | | | | |To trick Austria into declaring War. | | | | |Evidence for the Plan: | | |He created a situation where Austria and Prussia were becoming more hostile to one another. | | |This was created through War with Denmark 1864 when Bismarck persuaded Austria to join them | | |in War.Once victorious The Gastein Convention gave Prussia administrative control of | | |Schleswig and Austria control of Holstein. | | |Prussia’s and Austria’s relationship now deteriorates rapidly and when Prussia proposes | | |plans to change the Constitution in Schleswig Austria appeals to the Diet which is forbidden| | |in the Convention and Austria mobilises troops in case of War. | |Prussia now accuses Austria of being the aggressor and starting War invades Holstein. | | | | | |Evidence Against Plan: | | |It is unlikely Bismarck could have foreseen the inheritance crisis in Schleswig and | |STAGE 2 MASTER PLAN |Holstein. | |Also there is strong evidence to suggest that Bismarck wa s only attempting to annex | | |Schleswig and Holstein and not force a War with Austria. | | |There are letters to his wife that explain he is open to a ‘diplomatic solution’ to the | | |crisis and was willing to prevent War with Austria through diplomacy. | | | | |Analysis: | | |Whilst not as clear as Stage 1, it still seems likely Bismarck was acting as a Prussian | | |expansionist rather than planning war with Austria as he was still trying to resolve tension| | |through diplomacy until Austria mobilised her troops in 1866. | | | | | | | |To gain France’s neutrality. | | | | |Evidence for Plan: | | |Bismarck meets Napoleon III in Biarritz in October 1865 to appeal for neutrality in War with| | |Austria. Napoleon verbally agrees and would persuade Italy to join the War with Prussia. | | |Once Austria was defeated Napoleon would gain Venetia which would be passed to Italy. |STAGE 3 MASTER PLAN | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Evidence against Plan: | | |B ismarck could never be totally sure of Napoleon’s neutrality. Despite gaining a verbal | | |agreement details are very sketchy as to definite areas of agreement. Also Napoleon later | | |double-crossed Bismarck and made a secret agreement with the Austrians that for French | | |neutrality, if Austria won, Napoleon would be given some Prussian land as a reward. | | | | |Analysis: | | |Yes the Biarritz meeting was planned and yes the French remained neutral, but it seems | | |through more luck than detailed planning as Napoleon made agreements with both sides and | | |Bismarck could not guarantee French neutrality. | | | | | |Treat Austria Leniently after Defeat. | | | | | |Evidence for Plan: | |The Treaty of Prague 1866 was lenient on Austria and this was down to Bismarck. Both William| | |I and Von Moltke wanted to advance on to Vienna and press home defeat to humiliate Austria. | | |It took all of Bismarck’s persuasive abilities to prevent this from happening. | | |Austria had to agree to return to her Empire and leave German interests alone, disband the | | |Old Confederation and allow the formation of The North German Confederation under Prussian | |STAGE 4 MASTER PLAN |control. Secret military agreements were then made with the southern states. | | | | |Evidence against Plan: | | |Instead of deliberately planning to treat Austria leniently, it is more likely that Bismarck| | |wanted to consolidate gains and to prevent France or other European Powers from joining the | | |War in support of Austria which could have jeopardised gains made. | | | | | |Analysis: | | |Although Bismarck’s diplomatic skill in persuading William and von Moltke to go no further | | |after the Battle of Koningratz (Sadowa,) it seems more likely that he did it to prevent | | |French hostilities and to keep the gains made by Prussia during the War. | | | | | | | | | | |To trick France into declaring War. | | | | | |Evidence for Plan: | | |Bismarck goes agai nst the French claim of Luxembourg by proposing a German prince instead, | | |which certainly angered Napoleon. | | |In 1868 when the revolutions in Spain forces out the Queen they offer the throne to Leopold | | |of Hohenzollern (related to Prussian Royal family) in 1870.Bismarck could accept to gain | | |Spain as an ally but it would worry France (who would be encircled). | | |Finally 12th July 1870 it was decided to withdraw Leopold as a candidate. On the 13th July | | |French foreign Ambassador Benedetti meets William I at German town of Ems and William | | |accepted withdrawal of Leopold but refused to promise what the French were demanding; the | | |withdrawal of all future accession rights. William sent the telegram to Bismarck recalling | | |the events. |STAGE 5 MASTER PLAN |Bismarck’s genius comes into his own and releases his own version of the telegram to the | | |press which is so inflammatory that French declares War on Prussia on the 19th July 1870. | | | | | | Evidence Against the Plan: | | |Bismarck initially supported the French claim to Luxembourg but later changes his mind. | | |He also allows the withdrawal of Leopold as a candidate which doesn’t suggest he was trying | | |to provoke the French. | |Although the Ems telegram was deliberately doctored by him to cause the French to declare | | |War on Prussia it is more likely that he made the decision after he received the telegram | | |rather than planning the events in advance. | | |How could he have anticipated such aggressive French foreign policy in the demands Benedetti| | |made on William. | | |Analysis: | | |Although there is more evidence here to suggest Bismarck planned to get the French to | | |declare war; it is unlikely that he planned it prior to 1862 as he suggests.There is more | | |evidence to suggest he decided to provoke France after receiving the Telegram, so therefore | | |taking events as opportunities when they arose. | | | | | | | | | | | |Bismarck wa s a skilful politician who was most probably a Prussian Supremacist who wanted | | |Prussian expansion at the expense of the Austrians.It is most unlikely that he planned | | |unification from the start in 1862 and more likely that he used opportunities when they | | |presented themselves to benefit Prussia, initially and later, for Germany. | | |It is more likely that he first wanted to expand Prussian territory into Schleswig and | | |Holstein, but thwarted by the Austrians was forced into war with them in 1866. | | |Similarly in order to consolidate the North German Confederation under Prussian control, the| | |Treaty of Prague was lenient so not to provoke the French. |CONCLUSION |Finally once the military agreements were in place with the southern states, Bismarck used | | |the opportunities presented as a result of the Luxembourg Situation and the Hohenzollern | | |Candidature Crisis to re-write the Ems Telegram. This again was where he saw the opportunity| | |of expansion to include all German states under Prussian leadership. | | |The only people who believe the Master plan were Bismarck himself and early German | | |historians who were still in awe of the great statesman that had unified Germany. Most other| | |historians realise that he was more likely an incredibly skilful opportunist and able | | |politician. |